Psychological Explanations: Differential Association Theory

What is Differential Association Theory?

Differential Association Theory (DAT) was proposed by Sutherland (1939). It suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through interactions with other people, particularly within close social groups such as family, friends, peers and communities.

Sutherland argued that nobody is born a criminal. Instead, offending behaviour develops when an individual is exposed to more pro-criminal attitudes than anti-criminal attitudes.

Key Terminology

Pro-criminal attitudes:

These are attitudes, beliefs and values that support or justify criminal behaviour.

Examples:

  • “Everyone steals sometimes.”
  • “Insurance companies can afford it.”
  • “Selling drugs is an easy way to make money.”

Anti-criminal attitudes:

These are attitudes, beliefs and values that discourage criminal behaviour.

Examples:

  • “Stealing is wrong.”
  • “Crime harms innocent people.”
  • “You should obey the law.”

Differential Association

The process of learning criminal attitudes and behaviour through interaction with others.

How Criminal Behaviour is Learned?

1. Learning Attitudes and Values

According to Sutherland, individuals learn both:

  • Pro-criminal attitudes
  • Anti-criminal attitudes

Criminal behaviour is more likely when exposure to pro-criminal attitudes outweighs exposure to anti-criminal attitudes.

For example, a teenager whose friendship group regularly praises theft may begin to view stealing as acceptable.

2. Learning Criminal Techniques

People do not simply learn favourable attitudes towards crime. They may also learn the practical skills needed to commit offences.

Examples include:

  • How to break into a house
  • How to disable a car alarm
  • How drugs are bought and sold
  • How to avoid detection by police

This means criminal behaviour, like any other behaviour, can be taught and learned.

3. Frequency, Duration and Intensity

The likelihood of offending depends on the amount of exposure to criminal influences.

Frequency

How often an individual is exposed to pro-criminal attitudes.

Duration

How long the exposure lasts.

Intensity

How important or influential the role model is.

For example, criminal attitudes learned from a parent may have a stronger influence than those learned from a casual acquaintance.

Why Does Crime Occur?

DAT argues that crime occurs when:

An individual experiences an excess of definitions favourable to law violation over definitions unfavourable to law violation.

In simple terms:

When pro-criminal influences outweigh anti-criminal influences, offending becomes more likely.

Applying Differential Association Theory

DAT can explain:

  • Youth gang involvement
  • Organised crime
  • Drug dealing networks
  • Reoffending after release from prison

For example, prisoners may be exposed to experienced offenders who communicate pro-criminal attitudes and teach criminal techniques. This may increase the likelihood of reoffending after release.

Research Support

Akers et al. (1979)

Akers investigated why some adolescents engaged in alcohol and marijuana use whereas others did not.

Findings

Adolescents were more likely to use substances when:

  • Their friends used substances.
  • They associated frequently with substance users.
  • They observed admired role models using substances.

Conclusion

The study found that peer associations were strongly related to substance use.

Link to DAT

The findings support the idea that behaviour can be learned through association with others and exposure to deviant role models.

Evaluation of the Study

The study was correlational. This means it cannot establish cause and effect. It is possible that adolescents who already wanted to use drugs simply chose friends who shared similar behaviours.

Farrington et al. (2006)

Farrington followed 411 males from a deprived area of London between the ages of 8 and 50.

Findings

  • 41% were convicted of at least one offence.
  • Association with delinquent peers was one of the strongest predictors of later offending.

Link to DAT

The findings support the claim that criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with deviant peer groups.

Evaluation

Strength: Research Support

Studies such as Akers and Farrington provide evidence that association with delinquent peers is linked to offending behaviour. This increases the validity of the theory because its core assumptions are supported by real-world research. Differential Association Theory may provide a useful explanation for why criminal behaviour often runs within friendship groups and criminal subcultures.

Strength: Explains Group and Gang Crime

Many crimes occur within groups, gangs and organised criminal networks. DAT explains this by suggesting individuals learn criminal values and techniques from those around them. The theory may have greater explanatory power than biological explanations, which often struggle to explain why offending tends to cluster within particular groups.

Limitation: Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

Research often finds a relationship between delinquent peers and offending behaviour. However, this does not prove that delinquent peers cause criminal behaviour. It may be that individuals who are already inclined to offend actively seek out similar friends. The theory may overestimate the role of social learning in causing criminal behaviour.

Limitation: Cannot Explain All Crimes

Some offenders appear to commit crimes independently without obvious exposure to criminal role models. Examples include:

  • Lone offenders
  • Certain white-collar criminals
  • Some serial offenders
  • This suggests that factors other than social learning may contribute to offending behaviour.